Category: Research

The island of Lastavica is situated at the entrance to the Boka Bay, between Capes Arza and Oštro. Its historical name, Scoglio Rondoni, originates from the Venetian period and is derived from the Italian word il rondone, referring to a type of swift bird similar to a swallow (Apus apus). The island occupies an exceptional position, offering expansive views of both the open sea and the interior of the bay. However, its natural features, characterised by sharp and steep cliffs, make it difficult to access, even during calm summer weather. Vessels can approach only from the northern side, which is somewhat more sheltered and still features a small, well-preserved mulo (pier) from the Austro-Hungarian period.

Fort Mamula is one of three forts forming the first line of defence for the fortress of Boka Bay. In accordance with Regulation No. 5994 issued by the General Directorate for Engineering in Vienna in 1850, the Directorate for Engineering Works in Kotor (die K.u.K. Genie Direction) began preparing the initial plans for a permanent fortification on the island of Rondoni (Lastavica) at the entrance to the Boka Bay. Between 1850 and 1854, this impressive military fortification was constructed under the supervision of Admiral Lazar Mamula.

Lazar Mamula (1795-1878) was born the son of a captain in the Imperial-Royal Military Frontier (German: Militärgrenze). He received his education at a gymnasium and at the Imperial-Royal Engineering Academy in Vienna. He began his military career in 1815 in the engineering corps, quickly advancing through the ranks. He played a key role in the construction of several military fortifications, including Franzensfeste, Lissa, and Komorn. In 1841, he was promoted to the rank of major and appointed Director of Engineering for Tyrol and Vorarlberg in Innsbruck.

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In 1848, at the request of Archduke Johann, the German administrator of the empire, who was well aware of Mamula's experience and capabilities, he was summoned to the war department in Frankfurt am Main and offered the rank of colonel. However, he declined this prestigious position and instead made himself available to Ban Josip Jelačić in Croatia. In 1849, he was appointed as a colonel to the forces stationed near Petrovaradin under the command of Count Laval Nugent (1777–1862). Acting on Nugent's orders, he was responsible for overseeing the fortress and reinforcing its positions. On 29 March, he successfully repelled an attack by the enemy garrison, securing the imperial army's positions and preventing further enemy advances into Srijem and Slavonia. For this remarkable feat, he was honoured with the Knight's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa and the Military Cross of Merit.. In 1852, he was appointed Military and Civil Governor, as well as Commanding General of Dalmatia. In this role, he engaged in significant humanitarian work, earning the nickname "Father Mamula" among the local population. In 1865, he retired due to eye problems (cataracts), holding the rank of Field Marshal. Lazar Mamula was the recipient of numerous prestigious honours, including: Real Privy Councillor, lifetime member of the House of Lords of the Imperial Council, bearer of the Command of the 25th Infantry Regiment, the Grand Cross of the Austrian Order of Leopold with the War Decoration, Knight of the Austrian Order of the Iron Crown First Class, Knight of the Military Order of Maria Theresa, and recipient of the Military Cross of Merit with the War Decoration.

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Mamula belongs to a type of fortification known as a fort. These are smaller, permanent defensive structures forming part of a belt fortress, designed to independently organise their defence. Such forts were equipped with manpower, weaponry, ammunition, and supplies, enabling autonomous operation and combat. Mamula was constructed as a circular, multi-storey tower with flanking guns in casemates and two casemate batteries (east and west), each armed with six guns. However, with advancements in weaponry—particularly the rifled cannon (1858–1863) and explosive shells—the fortress's armament became obsolete. Furthermore, its high, insufficiently thick walls rendered it ineffective for defence. As a result, only a decade after its construction, the fortress was almost unusable for its original purpose. To modernise the Mamula fortress and adapt it to newer weaponry, significant upgrades were made in 1875. These included the addition of the Merzer battery in the southern section of the fortification, between the central courtyard and the outer rampart. The construction of the Merzer battery marked the first use of concrete in fortifications within Boka Bay. While the concrete was unreinforced, it was employed to cover flat roofs, walkways, and cannon platforms. The Merzer battery on Mamula comprised positions for four 210 mm cannons, a room for ammunition storage, and a central armoured observation post. This modernisation extended the range of the fortress's cannons to 10.5 km, restoring its operational capacity. Initially, the fortress was equipped with around 40 cannons of various calibres. By the time of the First World War (1914), its armament included four M-1873 210 mm Merzers, eight M-95 80 mm cannons, and ten M-75/96 80 mm cannons, as well as a searchlight for enhanced operational capability.

During the First World War, the French naval fleet entered Adriatic waters nine times, albeit briefly. On three occasions, it attacked the fortifications at the entrance to the Boka Bay. The first attack occurred on 1 September 1914 at 7:30 a.m. The fleet, under the command of Admiral Auguste Boué de Lapeyrère, opened fire on Mamula from a distance of 13,000 metres. Each 305 mm cannon fired 10 shells during the 15-minute bombardment. Despite the attack, Mamula sustained no significant damage. The fort’s guns did not return fire, as the French ships were beyond their range. This initial assault was the only planned attack on the forts guarding the entrance to the Boka Bay; the subsequent two were unplanned. The second attack took place on 19 September 1914. It was carried out by the reinforced Second Light Division of Ships, commanded by Rear Admiral Senés. Due to heavy fog, the French fleet inadvertently approached the coastline to within approximately 5,000 metres, where they were spotted by the fortification's crew and fired upon. Cannons from Luštica, with a 150 mm calibre and a range of 10.5 km, and 210 mm mortars from Cape Oštro targeted the French ships. However, Mamula did not engage during this skirmish

When the French ships returned fire during the second attack, Fort Mamula was struck from a distance of 5,000 metres. One 305 mm shell dislodged the earthen layer on the breastworks, penetrated 12 metres of wall and ground, and exploded in the soldiers' galley and the circular tower itself. Another shell damaged part of the rampart. All three forts—Mamula, Arza, and Oštro—were attacked during this engagement, resulting in the death of one sailor and injuries to two others.

The third attack took place on 17 October 1914, but Mamula was not targeted. This assault marked the last time warships fired on the fortresses at the entrance to the Boka Bay. On 14 January 1915, the French submarine Monge arrived at the entrance to Boka Bay and remained there for two days.

Latter, the fortress on Lastavica island had been renamed to Mamula. Witness to that was a telegram from 31 August 1865:

Translation of the telegram is as follows:

The first assistent of the Army to His Excellence Mister F.M.L. barron Mamula, in Zadar. Vienna 31 August 1865.

His Majesty Emperor has kindly givven me the task to wish you good luck in the most deserved retirement and at the same time the most kindly ordered that, as permanent remider of Your Excellency in the Kingdom of Dalmatia, the name of the fortress "Scoglie Rondoni" near Kotor from now on, will be named "Fortress Mamula". From K.U.K. main telegram station Zadar. Telegram no. 1949 sent from Vienna Court on 31 August 1865 at 12 hours and 10 minutes, arrived to Zadar on 31 August at 1 hour 35 minutes.

Iz K.U.K. telegram glavna stanica Zadar. Telegram br. 1949 poslat iz Bečkog dvora 31. avgusta 1865. u 12 časova u 10 minuta, stigao u Zadar 31. avgusta u 1 čas i 35 minuta.

Mamula belongs to a type of fortification known as a fort. These are smaller, permanent defensive structures forming part of a belt fortress, designed to independently organise their defence. Such forts were equipped with manpower, weaponry, ammunition, and supplies, enabling autonomous operation and combat. Mamula was constructed as a circular, multi-storey tower with flanking guns in casemates and two casemate batteries (east and west), each armed with six guns. However, with advancements in weaponry—particularly the rifled cannon (1858–1863) and explosive shells—the fortress's armament became obsolete. Furthermore, its high, insufficiently thick walls rendered it ineffective for defence. As a result, only a decade after its construction, the fortress was almost unusable for its original purpose. To modernise the Mamula fortress and adapt it to newer weaponry, significant upgrades were made in 1875. These included the addition of the Merzer battery in the southern section of the fortification, between the central courtyard and the outer rampart. The construction of the Merzer battery marked the first use of concrete in fortifications within Boka Bay. While the concrete was unreinforced, it was employed to cover flat roofs, walkways, and cannon platforms. The Merzer battery on Mamula comprised positions for four 210 mm cannons, a room for ammunition storage, and a central armoured observation post. This modernisation extended the range of the fortress's cannons to 10.5 km, restoring its operational capacity. Initially, the fortress was equipped with around 40 cannons of various calibres. By the time of the First World War (1914), its armament included four M-1873 210 mm Merzers, eight M-95 80 mm cannons, and ten M-75/96 80 mm cannons, as well as a searchlight for enhanced operational capability.

During the First World War, the French naval fleet entered Adriatic waters nine times, albeit briefly. On three occasions, it attacked the fortifications at the entrance to the Boka Bay. The first attack occurred on 1 September 1914 at 7:30 a.m. The fleet, under the command of Admiral Auguste Boué de Lapeyrère, opened fire on Mamula from a distance of 13,000 metres. Each 305 mm cannon fired 10 shells during the 15-minute bombardment. Despite the attack, Mamula sustained no significant damage. The fort’s guns did not return fire, as the French ships were beyond their range. This initial assault was the only planned attack on the forts guarding the entrance to the Boka Bay; the subsequent two were unplanned. The second attack took place on 19 September 1914. It was carried out by the reinforced Second Light Division of Ships, commanded by Rear Admiral Senés. Due to heavy fog, the French fleet inadvertently approached the coastline to within approximately 5,000 metres, where they were spotted by the fortification's crew and fired upon. Cannons from Luštica, with a 150 mm calibre and a range of 10.5 km, and 210 mm mortars from Cape Oštro targeted the French ships. However, Mamula did not engage during this skirmish

When the French ships returned fire during the second attack, Fort Mamula was struck from a distance of 5,000 metres. One 305 mm shell dislodged the earthen layer on the breastworks, penetrated 12 metres of wall and ground, and exploded in the soldiers' galley and the circular tower itself. Another shell damaged part of the rampart. All three forts—Mamula, Arza, and Oštro—were attacked during this engagement, resulting in the death of one sailor and injuries to two others.

The third attack took place on 17 October 1914, but Mamula was not targeted. This assault marked the last time warships fired on the fortresses at the entrance to the Boka Bay. On 14 January 1915, the French submarine Monge arrived at the entrance to Boka Bay and remained there for two days.

According to the report of its commander, the French submarine Monge approached to within 800 metres of the Oštro-Mamula line, where it came under fire from both Mamula and Punta Oštro. On 29 December 1915, while patrolling near the entrance to Boka Bay under the command of Roland Morillot, Monge was spotted, attacked, and sunk by the Austro-Hungarian destroyer Heligoland. From 1854 until 1918, Fort Mamula functioned exclusively as a military facility, remaining armed and operational throughout this period.

Structurally, Fort Mamula consisted of the following buildings: 1. round tower with casamates on 2 levels, underground water tank, and oservation platform on the top; 2. arched (~3/4 of circle) outer rampart with Eastern and Western casamate battery on the lower level; the upper level contained 3 watch towers - central, Easter, and Western, infantry and machine gun posts; 3. central courtyard - spatious elevated area for training and excercise of soldiers; under it is the main water tank of volume of cca 420 qubic meters; 4. the lower courtyard surrounding the upper plato is used as communication area between rooms of the outer rampart and round tower; 5. Mörser battery (210 mm) with central armored watch tower; 6. stone built and paved moat surrounding the entire fortification.

The fortress is encircled by a deep, walled, and paved moat, as well as steep rocky terrain. The moat surrounds the circular tower and nearly the entire outer rampart. Observation posts were positioned on the rocks around the fort, providing additional vantage points. The rest of the island, beyond the fortifications, was interconnected by roads and paths leading to these observation posts, many of which have been preserved to this day.

Boat access is possible only on the northern side of this rocky island, where the coastline is somewhat milder and more accessible. For the purposes of fortification, a small pier was constructed here, from which a narrow, paved path leads to the entrance of the fortress. The path follows the natural contours of the terrain, with uneven sections managed by gentle slopes and a stone staircase. Adjacent to the pier is a small stone building, formerly used by a watchman to monitor departures and arrivals. The path culminates at a drawbridge in front of the fortress’s entrance gate.

The circular tower is the central building of the complex. The rooms on the ground floor and first floor are arranged around an open, paved inner courtyard with a well, beneath which lies a circular water tank with a capacity of approximately 225 cubic metres. The interior of the tower is radially divided into 14 rooms: 12 casemates designed for housing and operating cannons, an entrance corridor with a freight elevator, and a space containing a spiral staircase that leads to the roof terrace.

The top terrace protected with thick wall was used as an area for control and action. Delivery of munition to the top terrace was done via cargo elevator. ².

Historical and archival materials were the primary data sources for the research on the Mamula fortifications, conducted by the expert team at the PROJEKTOR Conservation Studio in Tivat from 2015 to 2016. Alongside local archives, crucial documentation was sourced from archives in Split, Zadar, and Pula (Croatia) and from the War Archive within the Austrian State Archives (*Das Österreichische Staatsarchiv – Vienna Kriegsarchiv*). The following text highlights key documents pertaining to the history of the Mamula fortress.

This document is part of the *Inland C-III* collection from the Cattaro War Archives in Vienna, dating to the mid-19th century. It consists of a large-format (~A0) map rendered in black and red ink, depicting the Topla Bay with marked locations of Austro-Hungarian fortresses and other military installations, along with the distances and lines of communication between them.

Another document, numbered 27 within the *Inland C-III* collection, was created in 1875 on similarly large (~A0) paper and utilises black, red, and blue ink. This map shows the strategic positions of all Austro-Hungarian fortifications across the Boka Bay, Grbalj, Paštrovići, and extending to the Albanian border.

This document, numbered 26, is part of the *Inland C-III Cattaro* collection within the War Archives in Vienna and is dated 25 June 1869. It is a large-format (~A0) map on tracing paper, drawn in black, red, and blue ink. The map details the Boka Bay, illustrating all Austro-Hungarian fortifications and positions, along with a plan for interventions on each structure. A legend at the bottom specifies proposed actions for each site, including

• complete reconstruction,
• maintenance of the current state,
• retention with enhancement, and
• complete removal.

The map also marks locations in the bay for torpedo stations and minefields. This document is especially valuable, as it includes chronological data on individual fortifications and positions, offering insights into the development and strategic planning of Austro-Hungarian defences in the area.

The next document, labelled *1850 Plan Litt A. Entwurf,* is part of the KVIII 69 E, Cattaro collection, dated 9 August 1850. Its purpose is somewhat ambiguous; it may represent a preliminary design for a yet-to-be-constructed fortification on the island, or it could depict an existing structure prior to Mamula’s construction in 1850. The plan includes the island’s geodetic base with fortifications, a wharf, an access path, and both cross-sectional and longitudinal views of the building. In the upper left corner, a map of the Boka Bay marks key strategic locations. The document details the proposed structure, specifying accommodation for 260 military personnel and estimating construction costs at 175,000 forints.

This document is part of the *Inland CIII* collection from the Castelnuovo War Archive in Vienna and was drawn up in Kotor in December 1888. The floorplans of the ground and first floors of the Mamula fortress are shown, along with a longitudinal section of the structure. The floorplans are depicted in detail, while the cross-section is shown schematically, omitting bastions and facades. Dimensions are given in clafters. This is the only document discovered so far that captures the original state of the Mamula fort before the 1880s modernisation, when it was modernised and the Merzer battery was installed.

This document is highly significant as it is a technical drawing of the fortification at scales of 1:800 and 1:400. It includes the fort’s layout, observation posts, pier, access path, three foundational structures of the circular tower, and a longitudinal section with details of water cisterns and their capacities, as well as the names of all rooms within the fortress

The accompanying photographs provide further historical value, illustrating the appearance and condition of the Mamula fortress from the early 20th century. The first photograph, taken during Christmas Mass in 1916, shows the fort’s condition and the number of soldiers stationed there at the time.

The second photograph, taken from the sea, reveals the northeast side of the island, where the fortification is clearly visible, with no vegetation obscuring its structures.

The following text is an excerpt from the research study Mamula 1914–1943, conducted by Ivan Tepavčević, PhD, from the University of Donja Gorica in Podgorica. This research took place from 2021 to 2022 and involved an extensive review of documents from the State Archives of Montenegro (branches in Cetinje, Kotor, and Herceg Novi), the Archives of Yugoslavia (Belgrade, Serbia), the ACS – Central State Archives of Italy (Archivio Centrale dello Stato), and the AUSSME – Italian State Military Archives (Archivio Ufficio dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito).

In the 170-year history of Mamula Fortress, the period from March 1942 to September 1943 stands out as a time of suffering for the inhabitants of the Boka Bay during their struggle against fascism and occupation. During this period, the occupying Italian government established a concentration camp at Mamula (officially named Campo di Concentramento Internati Politici P.M. 155), where prisoners were primarily communists, communist sympathisers, and their families. The exact number of individuals who passed through the camp is uncertain, as various sources report differing figures.

According to data from SUBNOR Herceg Novi, periods of imprisonment in camps at Mamula, Prevlaka on Punta Oštro, the village of Kameno, and the Španjola fortress ranged from one month to a year. Among the prominent and influential citizens held at Mamula were the philosopher and publicist Veljko Korać, doctor Stevo Mrđen, Baro Vukasović, and sculptor Luka Tomanović from Herceg Novi, mathematician Ernest Stipanić, partisan fighter and politician Božidar Daro Petković, and Miroslav Slaby from Tivat. This chapter in Mamula’s history is a story of suffering that must not be forgotten and deserves to be remembered with the utmost respect.


THE OUTBREAK OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR

6. 4. 1941The Kingdom of Italy launched an attack on Yugoslavia. Following the 11-day April War, the Yugoslav army capitulated, and Italy occupied parts of Slovenia, the entire eastern Adriatic coast, Herzegovina, Montenegro, Metohija, Kosovo, and sections of Macedonia.

17. 4. 1941. The Provisional Administrative Committee for Montenegro was established.

18. 5. 1941. By Decree No. 452, the Boka Bay, extending from Boka to Gruda in Konavle, was designated as a separate province (Provincia di Cattaro) and integrated into the Kingdom of Italy.

22. 5. 1941. A decree by Benito Mussolini formalised Italian rule in Montenegro. The Civil Commissariat was elevated to the Supreme Commissariat, the highest governing body, which enacted numerous regulations to control social relations in Montenegro.

JULY THIRTEENTH UPRISING

13. 7. 1941. An uprising against the occupying forces began in Montenegro, soon assuming a nationwide character. The insurgent forces numbered more than 30,000 people. Within ten days, a large part of Montenegro was liberated, except for the major cities of Podgorica, Cetinje, Nikšić, Pljevlja, and towns along the coast. Consequently, about 280,000 inhabitants lived in the liberated territory, while around 130,000 remained in the occupied areas. During July 1941, uprisings against the occupiers took place in almost all parts of Yugoslavia.

15. 7. 1941. Faced with strong resistance from the insurgents, Italy was forced to take emergency measures and deployed an additional 100,000 soldiers. The battles between the insurgents and the far superior Italian army were fierce and arduous.

15. 8. 1941. The uprising was suppressed, and the entire territory of Montenegro came under Italian military control.

3. 10. 1941. The Italian Military Governorate, with headquarters in Cetinje, was established as the main authority in Montenegro.

MAMULA CONCENTRATION CAMP (Campo di concentramento)

In occupied Boka Bay, the Kingdom of Italy implemented a system of prisons and camps with strict internal regimes. One of the most notorious was located in Kotor, in the former Austro-Hungarian prison building in the Old Town. Despite the harsh occupation and repression, the communist movement grew stronger and gained more support.

15. 12. 1941. Due to the fight against communists and the strong local resistance to the occupation, the Italian authorities decreed that each military division must have its own concentration camp. The Mamula fortress was assigned to the Emilia Division. In the fighting within this area, the Italian army arrested a large number of communists, their family members, and sympathisers of the movement.

The Mamula concentration camp was established in March 1942. While official documents cite 30. 3. 1942, as the date of its establishment, testimonies suggest that prisoners were brought to the island as early as 20 March.

The last prisoners left the camp 18 months later, in mid-September 1943.

FUNCTIONING OF THE CAMP

There were strict regulations governing daily life at Mamula, detailing the command structure, prisoner treatment, medical services, accommodation of interned groups, record-keeping and documentation, and periodic reporting. However, numerous testimonies reveal that these regulations were often not adhered to in practice. The detainees at Mamula included both men and women, all of whom were treated as prisoners.

Possession of valuables was forbidden, and prisoners could hold no more than 20 Italian lire. Contact between men and women, civilians, and hostages was strictly prohibited. Women were confined to the circular tower of the fortress, civilian men to one wing of the casemate ramparts, and hostages to the other. Testimonies indicate that the eastern wing housed prisoners from Boka Bay, while those from the broader region—including Konavle, Korčula, Trebinje, and Mostar—were held in the western wing. The isolated island location, coupled with limited food and water supplies, poor living conditions, and irregular provisions, made life on Mamula exceptionally harsh.

Each prisoner had an individual file marked with their serial number, surname, and first name. File contents included the division command’s proposal for internment, the prefect of Kotor’s internment order, the command’s directive enforcing internment, any approval for release, and other personal documentation. The camp command was required to send periodic reports every ten days detailing the number of prisoners and any changes resulting from arrivals or departures.

INTERNAL SERVICE IN THE CAMP

A permanent detachment of carabinieri and armed soldiers was stationed on the island. The size of the detachment varied depending on the number of internees, but Mamula always maintained a minimum of one platoon (at least 50 soldiers and ten carabinieri). Orders regulated the operations of the guard, including inspections and patrols conducted by officers both within and around the camp.

The camp command had established protocols for handling mutinies, air raids, fires, and other emergencies. The primary duty of the guards was to prevent escape attempts. No escapes from Mamula are documented in official records, which is unsurprising: even if a prisoner managed to evade locked casemates, guards, and patrols, they would still face a 1.6-mile swim to the nearest shore, all while avoiding detection. New prisoners were subjected to thorough searches upon arrival.

Prisoners were allowed to wear their own clothes and keep personal belongings. They were permitted outside their cells three times daily: one hour in the morning, one to two hours in the afternoon, and one hour in the evening. Smoking was allowed only during these walks. Interned women were held in a separate ward and were allowed more time outdoors than men.

Prisoners could send letters to their families every 15 days, though all mail was subject to strict inspection and political censorship.


DAILY ROUTINE

The daily schedule in the camp was modelled after a soldier’s routine. Prisoners rose at dawn and, following a trumpet call, went to wash at the stone troughs and use the sanitary facilities. This was followed by an assembly on the central plateau of the fortress to witness the raising of the Italian flag. For breakfast, prisoners received a ladleful of warm black liquid—a coffee substitute—and half a loaf of panjoka (around 120 grams of bread) to last them the day. After breakfast, they were locked back in the casemates.

Lunch consisted of a thin broth with a few grains of rice, beans, or pieces of macaroni, and they were allowed outside for one to two hours. Dinner included a small piece of cheese and a lemon or orange. Due to limited space and the harsh island environment, there was little work for the prisoners, except for tasks like chopping wood for the kitchen or washing dishes. In the evening, prisoners assembled again on the plateau to honour the flag. Over time, as news from the war fronts turned unfavourable for the Italians, discipline on Mamula gradually relaxed

With strict supervision, prisoners were allowed to leave the fortress for a swim, and a military doctor from Meljine visited to examine those in need. Under the circular tower, a small shop sold tobacco, a few beverages, and canned marmalade. Eventually, the flag salute ceremony was also discontinued. The composition of the prisoners was highly diverse, both in terms of social background and in the degree of guilt or the circumstances of their arrest.

The camp administration categorised prisoners into two groups: those under military jurisdiction and those under civil jurisdiction. Captured partisans were placed under the authority of the military, while individuals detained by the police on suspicion of communist activities were managed by the civil authorities. The prisoners comprised a wide range of individuals, including many partisan fighters from Herzegovina, Dubrovnik, and Boka, as well as public officials, members of People’s Liberation Movement political organisations, family members of fighters, hostages, and suspected civilians whose alleged offences remained unproven.

The camp also held a number of officers and non-commissioned officers from the Royal Yugoslav Army. Prisoners differed in the circumstances of their capture: some fighters were apprehended by Herzegovinian Chetniks and Ustaše, others by Italian units, while a small number surrendered or turned themselves in voluntarily. Mamula housed prisoners from various social backgrounds, including clerks, civil servants, pupils, students, apprentices, seafarers, military personnel, peasants, and workers.

THE LIFE OF PRISONERS

According to documents outlining the camp’s operating rules, each prisoner was allocated one towel, a tin container with a lid, a spoon, a straw mattress with a monthly ration of seven kilograms of straw for bedding, and 100 grams of soap.

On the other hand, testimonies from prisoners reveal that these regulations existed only on paper and were not strictly enforced. By the end of 1942, makeshift wooden bunk beds were installed in the cells. Although the rules stipulated that prisoners should receive two military blankets each, they were usually given only one. The humidity in the cells was high, especially during rainy periods, while the summer months were stifling and oppressively hot.

The fortress contained 14 rooms for male prisoners, divided evenly between the two wings of the rampart casemates. Testimonies indicate that each room accommodated between 40 and 100 individuals, though the exact numbers vary depending on the source.

THE NUMBER OF PRISONERS

According to data from SUBNOR Herceg Novi, a total of 2,330 people—primarily men, but also women and children—were detained over 18 months (from March 1942 to September 1943) in the camps at Mamula, Prevlaka on Punta Oštro, the village of Kameno, and the Španjola fortress. While no official data on executions exists, it is known that no shootings took place on Mamula.

Health care at the camp was inadequate for the prisoners' needs and diverged significantly from the prescribed standards. Reports from the camp noted a lack of medical supplies and stressed the need for an isolation room in case of infectious diseases.

Although the camp command requested the permanent presence of a doctor, the division command only occasionally sent one to treat the sick. Consequently, the camp authorities relied on interned doctors to provide medical care, including Dr. Steve Mrđen, Dr. Miroslav Feller, and Dr. Laufer. Official records state that 35 prisoners died from disease, starvation, and exhaustion across the Mamula and Prevlaka camps, as well as in the hospital at Meljine. However, the exact number of deaths at Mamula itself remains unknown.

The only person known to have been buried on Mamula was Baldo Miletić, though some sources also mention the name Pero Miović. Miroslav Slaby, in Patriots of Boka on Mamula, also identifies B. Miletić as the only person buried on Mamula. After the war, Miletić’s remains were exhumed and reburied in the Herceg Novi cemetery.

DISSOLUTION OF THE CAMP

After Italy’s capitulation and the withdrawal of the Italian army, it was anticipated that the Germans would take control of the camp. In early early September 1943. year with permission from the prison command, a ship docked on the island, allowing for multiple evacuations of prisoners, who were then transferred to the Luštica Peninsula.

END OF THE WORLD WAR TWO IN MONTENEGRO

The German occupation ended in December 1944 when the Partisans took control of Montenegrin territory, marking the end of wartime operations in the region. Post-war assessments revealed that approximately 37,000 people—around 10% of Montenegro’s total population—had perished during the Second World War.

At the beginning of 2021, during preparatory work on the floor of the circular tower, remnants of painted layers were observed beneath several layers of lime. Shortly after the discovery, the work was halted, and the Directorate for the Protection of Cultural Properties was notified. A report on the accidental find was submitted to the Directorate, and based on previously issued conservation guidelines, the process of conservation research began. Following the project's approval, the implementation of conservation measures was initiated.

On the upper floor of the circular tower, there are 12 trapezoidal rooms, a lift shaft, and a hallway with a spiral staircase. In nearly all the rooms (except for the lift shaft), remnants of coloured layers and decorative paintings were observed on the walls and vaults. These remnants were not found on the ground floor, only in the upper-floor rooms of the circular tower. At the beginning of the research, it was determined that prolonged exposure of the tower’s interior to atmospheric influences had caused the painted layers to be removed in earlier phases in some rooms, preserved in small percentages in others, and entirely lost in certain areas.

For this reason, a decision was made to continue conservation research in seven rooms. The research was conducted using non-invasive methods that preserved the integrity of the cultural property, by opening test probes in the upper layers of lime coating. Based on preliminary observations, it was concluded that the paintings aimed to give the upper-floor rooms of the tower a representative character, thereby distinguishing them from the rest of the structure. The significance of this research lies in the uniqueness of the findings, as no decorative wall paintings have been documented in other Austro-Hungarian fortifications.

To gain a more detailed understanding of the choice of painting materials and colours, and to confirm assumptions related to this decorative artwork, physical-chemical analyses of the painted layers, binders, and plaster were conducted prior to conservation-restoration works. Samples of the painted layers, along with layers of the original plaster, were collected on-site. These samples were analysed at the Laboratory for Stone and Aggregate of the Institute for Materials of Serbia (IMS).

Research and investigative work was carried out on the decorative wall paintings in seven painted rooms. During the probing examinations, several important conclusions were reached:

• All wall surfaces were covered with a layer of dirt bound to the painted layer by subsequent lime coatings, making it possible to discern the content and hint at the original colour palette only in certain cleaned areas.
• The paintings were executed using the secco technique
• Warm red and ochre are visibly the most dominant colours.
• The presence of straight-line borders with painted floral patterns was observed.
• A two-layer plaster, up to 3 cm thick, was identified.
• The decorative wall paintings are significantly damaged, preserved only in fragments, with visible cracks, deterioration, and an unstable bond to the substrate.
  

In this way, after more than a century, conditions have been created for the restoration of these wall paintings. Based on the preserved fragments, it can be concluded that the wall paintings served a decorative purpose and date back to the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century. Pastel tones of moderate intensity were used, including warm ochre, red, brown, grey, light blue, light purple, and light green. These colours are typical and commonly found on buildings in Boka Bay with similarly decorated wall surfaces from the same period.

Lime formed the base for all the colours used. In addition to lime, the paints contained varying amounts of other elements used as additives, stabilisers, pigments, and similar components. Based on the remnants, it can be concluded that, in keeping with the period and the functional use of the upper-floor rooms of the tower, the artist skilfully designed and geometrically integrated compositions with ornamental details and symbolic motifs. Decorative ornamental reliefs were successfully imitated through painting. The research revealed borders featuring painted stylised floral decorations.

Based on physicochemical analyses, it was determined that the wall decorations in the rooms of the circular tower and the hallway with the spiral staircase were created using the secco technique on lime and lime-cement plaster. Deeper and shallower cracks were observed, and the absence of plaster as a base layer for the painted surface was noted in several places and across larger areas. Two layers of plaster were identified: the first, a coarser lime layer with a rougher texture (larger granulation), and the second, a much thinner and finer layer, often with added cement, on which the paintings were executed.

The majority of the painted surfaces were found to be in poor condition. It was determined that atmospheric moisture infiltration had caused degradation of the painted layer on the walls in all decorated rooms. The painted layer is flaking, its tonal quality has diminished, and in some areas, it has completely detached. The damage includes numerous cracks, dark stains, and subsequent coatings. In some places, the colours have changed due to the effects of moisture.

As the function of the rooms changed, numerous mechanical damages occurred during adaptations for new purposes. In addition to the described damages, subsequent lime coatings are visible over the original painted layers. These coatings vary in tone and degree of damage. The most recent layer is the easiest to remove, as it was most exposed to direct moisture influence. The base layer is solid but crumbles and disintegrates in places under light finger pressure. The final layer is a composite plaster made with a mixture of lime and cement binders. This plaster layer is firm and does not change under finger pressure.

The underlying substrate of the wall decorations was in poorer condition, as the effects of atmospheric moisture had significantly compromised the cohesion of the lime. Blisters were visible in several places, though larger blisters were rare. The painted layer suffered more severe damage than the substrate and the base. Delamination occurred most extensively in areas that had been repainted. The cause of the delamination was the excessive thickness of the subsequently applied paint layers and the stronger binder used.

Based on an assessment of the current condition, at least three and up to five subsequent lime coatings were identified over the original painted layer. These later coatings have darkened and become soiled. The effects of moisture are visually evident on the most recent white-painted layer, which displays reddish discolouration. The presence of moisture has also caused salt efflorescence in certain areas, further contributing to the degradation of the painted layer. Using percussion testing, the presence of detachments—specifically the separation of plaster from the wall substrate—was confirmed.

Following the completion of research work, conservation efforts and the restoration of wall and decorative painted surfaces were undertaken in 2022.