The following text is an excerpt from the research study Mamula 1914–1943, conducted by Ivan Tepavčević, PhD, from the University of Donja Gorica in Podgorica. This research took place from 2021 to 2022 and involved an extensive review of documents from the State Archives of Montenegro (branches in Cetinje, Kotor, and Herceg Novi), the Archives of Yugoslavia (Belgrade, Serbia), the ACS – Central State Archives of Italy (Archivio Centrale dello Stato), and the AUSSME – Italian State Military Archives (Archivio Ufficio dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito).
In the 170-year history of Mamula Fortress, the period from March 1942 to September 1943 stands out as a time of suffering for the inhabitants of the Boka Bay during their struggle against fascism and occupation. During this period, the occupying Italian government established a concentration camp at Mamula (officially named Campo di Concentramento Internati Politici P.M. 155), where prisoners were primarily communists, communist sympathisers, and their families. The exact number of individuals who passed through the camp is uncertain, as various sources report differing figures.
According to data from SUBNOR Herceg Novi, periods of imprisonment in camps at Mamula, Prevlaka on Punta Oštro, the village of Kameno, and the Španjola fortress ranged from one month to a year. Among the prominent and influential citizens held at Mamula were the philosopher and publicist Veljko Korać, doctor Stevo Mrđen, Baro Vukasović, and sculptor Luka Tomanović from Herceg Novi, mathematician Ernest Stipanić, partisan fighter and politician Božidar Daro Petković, and Miroslav Slaby from Tivat. This chapter in Mamula’s history is a story of suffering that must not be forgotten and deserves to be remembered with the utmost respect.
THE OUTBREAK OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR
6. 4. 1941The Kingdom of Italy launched an attack on Yugoslavia. Following the 11-day April War, the Yugoslav army capitulated, and Italy occupied parts of Slovenia, the entire eastern Adriatic coast, Herzegovina, Montenegro, Metohija, Kosovo, and sections of Macedonia.
17. 4. 1941. The Provisional Administrative Committee for Montenegro was established.
18. 5. 1941. By Decree No. 452, the Boka Bay, extending from Boka to Gruda in Konavle, was designated as a separate province (Provincia di Cattaro) and integrated into the Kingdom of Italy.
22. 5. 1941. A decree by Benito Mussolini formalised Italian rule in Montenegro. The Civil Commissariat was elevated to the Supreme Commissariat, the highest governing body, which enacted numerous regulations to control social relations in Montenegro.
JULY THIRTEENTH UPRISING
13. 7. 1941. An uprising against the occupying forces began in Montenegro, soon assuming a nationwide character. The insurgent forces numbered more than 30,000 people. Within ten days, a large part of Montenegro was liberated, except for the major cities of Podgorica, Cetinje, Nikšić, Pljevlja, and towns along the coast. Consequently, about 280,000 inhabitants lived in the liberated territory, while around 130,000 remained in the occupied areas. During July 1941, uprisings against the occupiers took place in almost all parts of Yugoslavia.
15. 7. 1941. Faced with strong resistance from the insurgents, Italy was forced to take emergency measures and deployed an additional 100,000 soldiers. The battles between the insurgents and the far superior Italian army were fierce and arduous.
15. 8. 1941. The uprising was suppressed, and the entire territory of Montenegro came under Italian military control.
3. 10. 1941. The Italian Military Governorate, with headquarters in Cetinje, was established as the main authority in Montenegro.
MAMULA CONCENTRATION CAMP (Campo di concentramento)
In occupied Boka Bay, the Kingdom of Italy implemented a system of prisons and camps with strict internal regimes. One of the most notorious was located in Kotor, in the former Austro-Hungarian prison building in the Old Town. Despite the harsh occupation and repression, the communist movement grew stronger and gained more support.
15. 12. 1941. Due to the fight against communists and the strong local resistance to the occupation, the Italian authorities decreed that each military division must have its own concentration camp. The Mamula fortress was assigned to the Emilia Division. In the fighting within this area, the Italian army arrested a large number of communists, their family members, and sympathisers of the movement.
The Mamula concentration camp was established in March 1942. While official documents cite 30. 3. 1942, as the date of its establishment, testimonies suggest that prisoners were brought to the island as early as 20 March.
The last prisoners left the camp 18 months later, in mid-September 1943.
FUNCTIONING OF THE CAMP
There were strict regulations governing daily life at Mamula, detailing the command structure, prisoner treatment, medical services, accommodation of interned groups, record-keeping and documentation, and periodic reporting. However, numerous testimonies reveal that these regulations were often not adhered to in practice. The detainees at Mamula included both men and women, all of whom were treated as prisoners.
Possession of valuables was forbidden, and prisoners could hold no more than 20 Italian lire. Contact between men and women, civilians, and hostages was strictly prohibited. Women were confined to the circular tower of the fortress, civilian men to one wing of the casemate ramparts, and hostages to the other. Testimonies indicate that the eastern wing housed prisoners from Boka Bay, while those from the broader region—including Konavle, Korčula, Trebinje, and Mostar—were held in the western wing. The isolated island location, coupled with limited food and water supplies, poor living conditions, and irregular provisions, made life on Mamula exceptionally harsh.
Each prisoner had an individual file marked with their serial number, surname, and first name. File contents included the division command’s proposal for internment, the prefect of Kotor’s internment order, the command’s directive enforcing internment, any approval for release, and other personal documentation. The camp command was required to send periodic reports every ten days detailing the number of prisoners and any changes resulting from arrivals or departures.
INTERNAL SERVICE IN THE CAMP
A permanent detachment of carabinieri and armed soldiers was stationed on the island. The size of the detachment varied depending on the number of internees, but Mamula always maintained a minimum of one platoon (at least 50 soldiers and ten carabinieri). Orders regulated the operations of the guard, including inspections and patrols conducted by officers both within and around the camp.
The camp command had established protocols for handling mutinies, air raids, fires, and other emergencies. The primary duty of the guards was to prevent escape attempts. No escapes from Mamula are documented in official records, which is unsurprising: even if a prisoner managed to evade locked casemates, guards, and patrols, they would still face a 1.6-mile swim to the nearest shore, all while avoiding detection. New prisoners were subjected to thorough searches upon arrival.
Prisoners were allowed to wear their own clothes and keep personal belongings. They were permitted outside their cells three times daily: one hour in the morning, one to two hours in the afternoon, and one hour in the evening. Smoking was allowed only during these walks. Interned women were held in a separate ward and were allowed more time outdoors than men.
Prisoners could send letters to their families every 15 days, though all mail was subject to strict inspection and political censorship.
DAILY ROUTINE
The daily schedule in the camp was modelled after a soldier’s routine. Prisoners rose at dawn and, following a trumpet call, went to wash at the stone troughs and use the sanitary facilities. This was followed by an assembly on the central plateau of the fortress to witness the raising of the Italian flag. For breakfast, prisoners received a ladleful of warm black liquid—a coffee substitute—and half a loaf of panjoka (around 120 grams of bread) to last them the day. After breakfast, they were locked back in the casemates.
Lunch consisted of a thin broth with a few grains of rice, beans, or pieces of macaroni, and they were allowed outside for one to two hours. Dinner included a small piece of cheese and a lemon or orange. Due to limited space and the harsh island environment, there was little work for the prisoners, except for tasks like chopping wood for the kitchen or washing dishes. In the evening, prisoners assembled again on the plateau to honour the flag. Over time, as news from the war fronts turned unfavourable for the Italians, discipline on Mamula gradually relaxed
With strict supervision, prisoners were allowed to leave the fortress for a swim, and a military doctor from Meljine visited to examine those in need. Under the circular tower, a small shop sold tobacco, a few beverages, and canned marmalade. Eventually, the flag salute ceremony was also discontinued. The composition of the prisoners was highly diverse, both in terms of social background and in the degree of guilt or the circumstances of their arrest.
The camp administration categorised prisoners into two groups: those under military jurisdiction and those under civil jurisdiction. Captured partisans were placed under the authority of the military, while individuals detained by the police on suspicion of communist activities were managed by the civil authorities. The prisoners comprised a wide range of individuals, including many partisan fighters from Herzegovina, Dubrovnik, and Boka, as well as public officials, members of People’s Liberation Movement political organisations, family members of fighters, hostages, and suspected civilians whose alleged offences remained unproven.
The camp also held a number of officers and non-commissioned officers from the Royal Yugoslav Army. Prisoners differed in the circumstances of their capture: some fighters were apprehended by Herzegovinian Chetniks and Ustaše, others by Italian units, while a small number surrendered or turned themselves in voluntarily. Mamula housed prisoners from various social backgrounds, including clerks, civil servants, pupils, students, apprentices, seafarers, military personnel, peasants, and workers.
THE LIFE OF PRISONERS
According to documents outlining the camp’s operating rules, each prisoner was allocated one towel, a tin container with a lid, a spoon, a straw mattress with a monthly ration of seven kilograms of straw for bedding, and 100 grams of soap.
On the other hand, testimonies from prisoners reveal that these regulations existed only on paper and were not strictly enforced. By the end of 1942, makeshift wooden bunk beds were installed in the cells. Although the rules stipulated that prisoners should receive two military blankets each, they were usually given only one. The humidity in the cells was high, especially during rainy periods, while the summer months were stifling and oppressively hot.
The fortress contained 14 rooms for male prisoners, divided evenly between the two wings of the rampart casemates. Testimonies indicate that each room accommodated between 40 and 100 individuals, though the exact numbers vary depending on the source.
THE NUMBER OF PRISONERS
According to data from SUBNOR Herceg Novi, a total of 2,330 people—primarily men, but also women and children—were detained over 18 months (from March 1942 to September 1943) in the camps at Mamula, Prevlaka on Punta Oštro, the village of Kameno, and the Španjola fortress. While no official data on executions exists, it is known that no shootings took place on Mamula.
Health care at the camp was inadequate for the prisoners' needs and diverged significantly from the prescribed standards. Reports from the camp noted a lack of medical supplies and stressed the need for an isolation room in case of infectious diseases.
Although the camp command requested the permanent presence of a doctor, the division command only occasionally sent one to treat the sick. Consequently, the camp authorities relied on interned doctors to provide medical care, including Dr. Steve Mrđen, Dr. Miroslav Feller, and Dr. Laufer. Official records state that 35 prisoners died from disease, starvation, and exhaustion across the Mamula and Prevlaka camps, as well as in the hospital at Meljine. However, the exact number of deaths at Mamula itself remains unknown.
The only person known to have been buried on Mamula was Baldo Miletić, though some sources also mention the name Pero Miović. Miroslav Slaby, in Patriots of Boka on Mamula, also identifies B. Miletić as the only person buried on Mamula. After the war, Miletić’s remains were exhumed and reburied in the Herceg Novi cemetery.
DISSOLUTION OF THE CAMP
After Italy’s capitulation and the withdrawal of the Italian army, it was anticipated that the Germans would take control of the camp. In early early September 1943. year with permission from the prison command, a ship docked on the island, allowing for multiple evacuations of prisoners, who were then transferred to the Luštica Peninsula.
END OF THE WORLD WAR TWO IN MONTENEGRO
The German occupation ended in December 1944 when the Partisans took control of Montenegrin territory, marking the end of wartime operations in the region. Post-war assessments revealed that approximately 37,000 people—around 10% of Montenegro’s total population—had perished during the Second World War.
